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The rheologic integrity of the sample may also be affected by the nature of the sampling, sample handling, desiccations, especially for clay rich materials, and machining, which all place stress on the sample. Further, even the FIB milling process, particularly at high beam currents, can adversely impact the sample leading to varying forms of artificial porosity. Small cracks in the sample may result from machining, so insights into their nature such as the presence of clay particles within the fracture need to be pursued and their origins evaluated. Lower currents are recommended for polishing and prior to image collection.
Because neutron scattering is a nuclear, rather than an electronic effect, it is sensitive to isotopic variations, and two nuclear isotopes, such as 1H and 2H, may have dramatically different neutron scattering cross-sections, despite having the same chemical identity. Therefore, the scattering length density of the sample, or a fluid in it can be experimentally controlled. For instance, if the sample is soaked in an H2O/D2O mixture with a scattering length density matched to the rock matrix, connected (effective) porosity and total porosity can be separated. In addition, because of the nature of the neutron/sample interaction neutrons are much more penetrating than X-rays, and can be used to study magnetic (Shull and Smart 1949) as well as structural effects. However, unlike X-rays, neutrons can activate elements in a sample, and samples must be scanned for radioactivity after having been in a neutron beam. In rare cases activation may be large enough to prevent release of the sample after analysis. Despite this potential difficulty, these differences make X-ray and neutron scattering complementary approaches, presenting an opportunity for an experimenter investigating a complicated material such as natural porous media.
The difference between continuous-source SAS instruments and time-of-flight (TOF) instruments lies less in the design of the instrument itself than in the nature of the source. For neutrons continuous sources are typically reactors (e.g. NCNR, HFIR), while pulsed sources are either spallation sources (WNR/LANSCE, SNS, ISIS, ILL), continuous sources to which a neutron chopper has been added or the pulsed IBR-2 reactor in Dubna, Russia.. As the name implies, In TOF-SAS instruments the initial flux of radiation hits the sample in a single pulse of some known time width and intensity. This usually uses a wide wavelength range simultaneously. Each pixel in the detector must, therefore, measure the intensity as a function of time relative to the time the pulse hits the sample, and the time signal for each neutron can be recorded (time-stamped). Continuous sources, by contrast, typically operate in an integrating mode. For most geological applications there is not much difference between continuous and TOF instruments, although the wide wavelength range can complicate the use of sample environment materials with a Bragg edge such as a sapphire window. However, the TOF instruments do provide the opportunity to measure kinetics of fast processes, and may be particularly useful for dynamic imaging. Examples of such instruments are the EQ-SANS and TOF_SANS instruments at the SNS at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, and LOQ and SANS2d at ISIS, REFSANS at the FRM-II, and LQD and LANSCE and Los Alamos National Laboratory.
Unlike transmitted geometries, grazing incidence SAS is a surface-sensitive technique, commonly used for the analysis of nanostructured thin films. GISAS provides the opportunity to study surfaces using small angle techniques, where the intensities obtained from normal transmission geometries are typically very small. These measurements are performed in situ and, for GISAXS at least where the fluxes are suitably high can be done in a time-resolved manner to study reaction kinetics. They can also be used to study buried structures non-destructively (Naudon 1995). Most importantly, because the areas illuminated for both X-ray and neutron studies are fairly large, GISAS techniques probe a statistically relevant surface area of square millimeters or larger. As this technique has been recently reviewed in this series (De Yoreo et al. 2013) it will be only briefly discussed here.
To date, however, there has been very little work on rock materials using SESANS. Figure 27 shows preliminary data (Anovitz and Bouwman, unpb.) obtained from samples analyzed using (U)SANS by Anovitz et al. (2009). It is clear from these data that SESANS can be successfully applied to rock materials, and that there is significant opportunity to utilize this approach for geologic applications.
As has been noted above, SAS data suggest that pore structures in rocks exhibit both surface and mass fractal behavior. While the scattering data do not directly show what those structures look like, as noted above structure and form factor models such as those suggested by Beaucage (1995, 1996) and Beaucage et al. (1995, 2004) are based on models of this structure. Imaging data provides the opportunity to extend this analysis to a consideration of direct box-counting fractal (Block et al. 1990) and multifractal behavior based on actual observations.
Some journalists continue to pursue their careers in Iraq despite all the risks, but according to Al-Jazeera, dozens have chosen to remain in the Kurdistan region or flee to Turkey and other countries after their colleagues were subjected to various violations, including murder, kidnapping, extortion, and the closure of their outlets (see C7).6 While the Kurdistan region for many years was deemed a safer place for journalists and online activists, more recently the KRG has cracked down on free speech, leading to more self-censorship.7
Members of the Iraqi diaspora community and their relatives in Iraq are targeted with harassment and kidnappings. Iraqi intellectuals stated that the family of the young blogger Amin Muhammad Ali, who had been living in Europe for years, was kidnapped in February 2017, and the kidnappers demanded that the blogger return to Iraq and surrender himself to them.10
Chalmers' use of the word easy is "tongue-in-cheek".[23] As Steven Pinker puts it, they are about as easy as going to Mars or curing cancer. "That is, scientists more or less know what to look for, and with enough brainpower and funding, they would probably crack it in this century."[24] The easy problems are amenable to reductive inquiry. They are a logical consequence of lower level facts about the world, similar to how a clock's ability to tell time is a logical consequence of its clockwork and structure, or a hurricane is a logical consequence of the structures and functions of certain weather patterns. A clock, a hurricane, and the easy problems, are all the sum of their parts (as are most things).[19]
In the distance the spires of St Germain des Pres slice the horizon while the glimmering Seine glistens in response to the setting sun. From the chipped slate rooftops to the furry green moss nuzzled in the cracks of walls, the attention to detail is astonishing. 2b1af7f3a8